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Syed Ahmad Khan

Indian reformer and communal activist (1817–1898)

Not to be woollen blurred with Syed Ahmad Barelvi.

Sir Syed Ahmad KhanKCSI, FRAS (17 Oct 1817 – 27 March 1898), also spelled Sayyid Ahmad Khan, was an Indian Muslim reformer,^[1]^[2]^[3]philosopher, and educationist^[4] in nineteenth-century Country India.^[5]^[6]

Though initially espousing Hindu–Muslim unification, he later became the pathfinder of Muslim nationalism in Bharat and is widely credited because the father of the two-nation theory, which formed the argument of the Pakistan movement.^[1]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] Hatched into a family with tangy ties to the Mughal pay one`s addresses to, Ahmad studied science and righteousness Quran within the court.

Unwind was awarded an honorary LLD from the University of Capital in 1889.^[12]^[9]^[6]

In 1838, Syed Ahmad entered the service of Puff up India Company and went configuration to become a judge bulldoze a Small Causes Court tidy 1867, retiring from this in line in 1876.

During the Amerindic Mutiny of 1857, he remained loyal to the British Raj and was noted for queen actions in saving European lives.^[1]^[2] After the rebellion, he enclosed the booklet The Causes be fitting of the Indian Mutiny – straighten up daring critique, at the purpose, of various British policies rove he blamed for causing depiction revolt.

Believing that the vanguard of Muslims was threatened impervious to the rigidity of their unsymmetrical outlook, Sir Ahmad began urging Western–stylescientific education by founding another schools and journals and composition Islamic entrepreneurs.^[13] Victoria School attractive Ghazipur in 1863, and neat scientific society for Muslims choose by ballot 1864.^[14] In 1875, founded class Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, the greatest Muslim university in Southern Asia.^[15] During his career, Syed continually called upon Muslims to loyally serve the British Raj delighted promoted the adoption of Sanskrit as the lingua franca hold all Indian Muslims.

Syed criticized the Indian National Congress.^[1]

Sir Syed maintains a strong legacy vibrate Pakistan and among Indian Muslims. He became a source influence inspiration for the Pakistan Desire and its activists, including Allama Iqbal and Muhammad Ali Statesman. His advocacy of Islam's positivist tradition, and a broader, vital reinterpretation of the Quran kindhearted make it compatible with body of laws and modernity, continues to staying power the global Islamic reformation.^[16] Numerous universities and public buildings buy Pakistan bear Sir Syed's name.^[17]Aligarh Muslim University celebrated Sir Syed's 200th birth centenary with all the more enthusiasm on 17 October 2017.^[18]^[19]

Early life

Do not show the features of Islam to others; in lieu of show your face as rendering follower of true Islam in support of character, knowledge, tolerance and piety.
— Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

Syed Ahmad Taqvi 'Khan Bahadur' was born strongwilled 17 October 1817 to Syed Muhammad Muttaqi^[20] and Aziz-un-Nisa^[21] plug Delhi, which was the resources of the Mughal Empire amid the reign of Mughal EmperorAkbar II.

Many generations of reward family had been highly standalone with the Mughal administration. Top maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin served as Wazir in the undertaking of EmperorAkbar Shah II.^[22] Tiara paternal grandfather Syed Hadi Jawwad bin Imaduddin held a mansab (lit. General) – a grand administrative position - and integrity honorary name of "Mir Jawwad Ali Khan" in the cultivate of EmperorAlamgir II.

Sir Syed's father, Syed Muhammad Muttaqi, was personally close to EmperorAkbar Noble II and served as consummate personal adviser.^[23] However, Syed Ahmad was born at a put on ice when his father was throw yourself into in regional insurrections aided with led by the East Bharat Company, which had replaced nobility power traditionally held by distinction Mughal state, reducing its queen to a figurehead.

Syed Ahmad was the youngest of join siblings. With his elder religious Syed Muhammad bin Muttaqi Caravanserai and elder sister Safiyatun Nisa,^[24] Sir Syed was raised delete the house of his nurturing grandfather in a wealthy universe of the city.^[25] They were raised in strict accordance identify Mughal noble traditions and they were exposed to politics.

Their mother Aziz-un-Nisa played a pliant role in Sir Syed's obvious life, raising him with demanding discipline and a strong end result on modern education.^[26]

Education

Sir Syed's tuition was initiated by Shah Ghulam Ali, his father's spiritual master in 1822.^[27] He was unskilled to read and understand honourableness Qur'an by a female guru Areeba Sehar.^[28] He received be thinking about education traditional to Muslim glory in Delhi.

He attended unmixed maktab run by a acute scholar, Moulvi Hamiduddin, in wonderful house adjacent to his historic home and started learning Iranian and Arabic.^[29] He read position works of Muslim scholars tell writers such as Sahbai, Zauq and Ghalib.^[30] Other tutors enlightened him in mathematics, astronomy leading algebra.

He also pursued rectitude study of medicine for a few years under Hakim Ghulam Haider Khan.^[29] Sir Syed was extremely adept at swimming, shooting point of view other sports.^[31] He took veto active part in the Mughal court's cultural activities and accompanied parties, festivals and recitations.^[32]

Syed Ahmad's elder brother launched a hebdomadary, “Syedul Akhbar”, from Delhi, which was one of the earlier Urdu newspapers in northern India.^[33] Until the death of queen father in 1838, Sir Syed had lived a life within acceptable limits for an affluent young Islamist noble.

Upon his father's dying, he inherited the titles objection his grandfather and father submit was awarded the title enjoy yourself Arif Jung by the ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar.^[34] Financial accountable put an end to Sir Syed's formal education, although subside continued to study in unofficial, using books on a division of subjects.^[32]

Career

Having recognized the dedicated decline in Mughal political whitewash, Sir Syed decided to into the service of the Eastern India Company.

He could call enter the colonial civil let because it was only be grateful for the 1860s that Indians were admitted. His first appointment was as a Serestadar (lit. Clerk) of the Criminal Department awarding the Sadr Amin's office trudge Delhi, responsible for record-keeping topmost managing court affairs.^[34]^[35] In Feb 1839, he was transferred be Agra and promoted to distinction title of Naib Munshi sneak deputy reader in the sovereignty of the Commissioner.^[36] In 1841 he was appointed as significance Munsif or Sub-Judge of Fatehpur Sikri and later transferred plan Delhi in 1846.^[36] He remained in Delhi until 1854 prep also except for for two short-term postings say you will Rohtak as officiating Sadr Amin in 1850 and 1853.^[37] Be thankful for 1855 he was promoted disturb the post of Sadr Amin in Bijnor.^[38]

Acquainted with high-ranking Island officials, Sir Syed obtained wrap up knowledge about British colonial machination during his service at rectitude courts.

At the outbreak curiosity the Indian rebellion, on 10 May 1857, Sir Syed was serving as the chief firmness officer at the court put into operation Bijnor.^[38] He stood by blue blood the gentry British officers of Bijnor paramount saved the lives of assorted officers and their family people from the revolting soldiers.^[38] Dignity conflict had left large in abundance of civilians dead.

Erstwhile centres of Muslim power such thanks to Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Kanpur were severely affected. He misplaced several close relatives who grand mal in the violence. Although without fear succeeded in rescuing his keep somebody from talking from the turmoil, she convulsion in Meerut, owing to excellence privations she had experienced.^[39]

In 1858, he was appointed as Sadarus Sudoor, a high-ranking post decompose the court in Muradabad, wheel he began working on coronet most famous literary work, The Cause of the Indian Revolt.^[40] In 1862, he was transferred to Ghazipur, and later abut Aligarh in 1864.

In 1864 he was sent to Banaras and elevated to the glance of a Sub-Judge of Petty Causes.^[40]

In April 1869, he attended his two sons Syed Hamid and Syed Mahmood to England, the latter had obtained spruce scholarship to study in England.^[41]

Sir Syed retired from government attack in 1876 and settled foundation Aligarh.^[42] In 1878, he was nominated as an additional contributor of the Imperial Legislative Assembly, which he served from July 1878 to July 1880.

Take action also served a second fleeting that lasted until 1883.^[43] Purify served the Legislative Council custom the Lieutenant Governor of high-mindedness North- Western Provinces for flash terms from 1887 until 1893.^[44]

Influences

Sir Syed's early influences were dominion mother Aziz-un-Nisa and maternal granddaddy Khwaja Fariduddin both of whom took special interest in climax education.^[45] Apart from serving chimpanzee a Wazir in the Mughal court, Khwaja Fariduddin was additionally a teacher, mathematician and astronomer.^[25] He was also disposed type Sufism, which left its coercion on Sir Syed since sovereignty early childhood.^[46] His maternal hack Khwaja Zainuddin Ahmad, who was an expert in music come to rest mathematics, also influenced him overcome his early days.^[47]

Sir Syed's at theological writings demonstrate the impinge on of three school of devout thought on his outlook - the Naqshbandi tradition of Sheikh of araby Ghulam Ali Dahlavi, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and his teachings, current the Mujahidin movement of Syed Ahmad Barelvi and his primordial disciple Shah Ismail Dehlvi.^[46]^[48] Piece Sir Syed shared the stinging for religious forms in Bharat with the Mujahidin movement, closure was opposed to the Asian Wahhabi movement.^[49]

During his formative period in Delhi he came behave contact with Ghalib and Zauq whose exquisite style of text and poetry influenced Sir Syed's style of writing.^[50] He would often visit Imam Baksh Sahbai and Sadruddin Khan Azurda Dehlawi in his learning years.^[51] On the subject of influence on him was potentate teacher and friend in Metropolis, Nur al Hasan of Kandhala, a teacher in Arabic shake-up Agra College in the ahead of time 1840s who encouraged and punished his early works.^[52]^[53]

He was extremely influenced by the works human the Tunisian reformer Hayreddin Pacha and adopted his approach dominate utilising freedom of expression primed bringing reforms in the Mohammedan community.^[54]

The western writers who governing influenced his political thoughts were the Utilitarians such as Ablutions Stuart Mill, whose works unquestionable often quoted in his rest writings.^[55] He was also moved by the essays of Patriarch Addison and Richard Steele stream modelled his own journals end their Tatler and Spectator.^[55]

Literary works

While continuing to work as graceful junior clerk, Sir Syed began focusing on writing, from significance age of 23 (in 1840), on various subjects (from mechanism to educational issues), mainly access Urdu, where he wrote, mop up least, 6000 pages.

He besides wrote a well known picture perfect on archaeology called Athar-ul-Sandeed. Purify also developed interest in humanities as he met a occasional of India's well known writers.^[56]^[57]

Religious works

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's growth as an author began what because he published a series firm treatises in Urdu on celestial subjects in 1842.

In queen early religious writings his god-fearing thoughts were more orthodox; reflection time, with his increasing technique with the West, his views gradually became more independent.^[58] Realm early works show the force of Sufism and his education in Delhi.^[59] The main themes of these works are debasement of the practices of position Islamic prophet Muhammad as significance one true path and primacy desire to reform the lives of Indian Muslims from devout innovations, thus endeavoring for rendering purity of Islamic belief be of advantage to India.^[60]^[59]

His later religious writings, much as his commentary on excellence Torah and Gospel and reward essays on Muhammad, were eager in response to Christian evangelist activities in India and dignity aggressive view of British historians towards Islam.^[54]

Early treatises

His first thesis published in 1842 was regular biographical sketch of Muhammad, callinged Jila al-Qulub bi Zikr al-Mahbub (Delight of the Hearts mud Remembering the Beloved),^[61] in fierce with the reformist ideas criticize Shah Waliullah.^[62] It was text for recitation on Mawlid cursive in idiomatic Urdu.^[63] He in print his second treatise Tuhfa-i Hasan (The Gift to Hasan) improve 1844 on the encouragement admire his friend Nur al Hasan.^[52] It is an Urdu transliteration of the tenth and one-twelfth chapter of Shah Abdul Aziz Dehlavi's Tuhfah-i Ithna Ashariyya (A treatise on the 12 Imams), which was a critique returns Shia beliefs.^[62]^[64] The tenth episode deals and answers the Shia accusations against the Sahabi advocate Hazrat Aisha and the 12th deals with the Shia doctrines of tawalli and tabarri.^[65]

His bag treatise, entitled Kalimat al-Haqq (The True Discourse), was published compel 1849.^[64] It is a description of the prevalent Sufi cipher around pir–murid relationships.^[66] The foremost part of the work evenhanded devoted to the concept register piri.

In this part, unquestionable argues that Muhammad is integrity only valid pir. The work's second part is focused reign muridi and the notion allude to bay'ah.^[67] He calls for reforms in the pir-murid relationship station the associated practises.^[68]Rah i Old sol dar radd i Bid'a (The Sunna and the Rejection business Innovations), his fourth treatise, was published in 1850.^[69] In that work, he expressed his paralelling to certain religious practices with beliefs of his fellow Muslims, which he felt were halfbred with innovation and deviated stick up the true Sunnah.^[70] In 1852 he published Namiqa dar bayan masala tasawwur-i-Shaikh (A Letter Explaining the Teaching of tasawwur uncontrolled shaikh), in which he defended tasawwur-i-Shaikh, the Sufi practice break into visualizing within, the image admit one's spiritual guide.^[66]^[71] In 1853 he translated some passages disturb al-Ghazali's Kimiya al Sa'ada (The Alchemy of Happiness).^[69]

Commentary of probity Torah and Gospel

In 1862 at long last stationed at Ghazipur, Sir Syed started working on a scholium on the Bible and academic teaching, with the aim suck up to explain them in terms resolve Islam.^[72] It was published surround Urdu and English in leash parts from 1862 to 1865 under the title Tabin al-al-kalam Fi tafsir altawrat Wa ‘I-injil’ala millat al Islam (Elucidation enterprise the World in Commentary rule the Torah and Gospel According to the Religion of Islam).^[73]^[74] While the first part deals with the Islamic approach concerning biblical writings, the second swallow third part contains commentary go slowly the Book of Genesis roost the Gospel of Matthew respectively.^[75]

Essays on the Life of Muhammad

In 1869 he wrote Al-Khutbat al-Ahmadiya fi'l Arab wa'I Sirat al-Muhammadiya (A Series of Essays reminder the Life of Prophet Muhammad and Subjects Subsidiary Therein) orangutan a rejoinder to William Muir's widely known four-part book, The Life of Mahomet published divulge 1864.^[76] He was deeply barely audible by Muir's portrayal of Mohammadanism and the character of Muhammad.

He was concerned that rank book might create doubts amidst the younger generation of Muslims.^[77] In order to prepare make a choice the book, he accompanied empress son to England, as recognized wanted to get a first-hand impression of Western civilisation.^[78]

He was also a reader of Naturalist and, while not agreeing live all of his ideas, dirt could be described as straight sort of theistic evolutionist come into sight his contemporary Asa Gray.

Syed Ahmad was one of character first in the Islamic earth to adopt this view. Cap arguments in favour of justness idea were based on both findings from his own wellcontrolled research and quotes from early Islamic scholars like Al-Jahiz, Ibn Khaldun and Shah Waliullah.^[79]

Tafsir-ul-Quran

Sir Syed started working on a tafsir, or commentary on the Quran, in 1877.

It was obtainable as Tafsir ul-Quran in septet volumes; the first volume comed in 1880 and the ultimate volume was published six maturity after his death in 1904.^[80] In this work, he analysed and interpreted 16 paras president 13 surahs of the Quran.^[80] In the first volume, sand also included a detailed section titled Tahrir fi Usool al-Tafsir (The Notes on the Morals of Commentary), in which earth laid down 15 principles puff out which he based his commentary.^[81]

Historical works

History was Sir Syed's best-loved area of study and spontaneous 1840, Sir Syed compiled a-okay book of chronological tables inexact the Timurid rulers of Metropolis from Timur to Bahadur Monarch Zafar at the behest perfect example Robert N.

C. Hamilton, consummate patron. It was later publicized under the title Jam-i-Jum (Jamshed's Cup).^[82] In Silsilat-ul-Mulk he compiled the biographical data of lessening the rulers of Delhi turn a profit history.^[83] During his stay riposte Bijnor, he wrote a chronicle on the city of Bijnor, but it was destroyed by the 1857 rebellion.^[84] He besides wrote critical editions of books like Ziauddin Barani's Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi published in 1862,^[85] and Tuzk-e-Jahangiri published in 1864.^[86] However, culminate most important historical works mosey brought him fame as splendid scholar were the two editions of Asar-us-Sanadid and that warning sign the Ain-e-Akbari.^[87]

Asar-us-Sanadid

In 1847, he available the book Asar-us-Sanadid (The Residuum of Ancient Heroes) documenting antiquities of Delhi dating from excellence medieval era.^[88] The work level-headed divided into four sections: leadership first describes the buildings casing the city of Delhi; leadership second describes the buildings nearly the Delhi Fort; the bag describes the monuments in Shahjahanabad; and the last section largesse a brief historical account noise the various settlements of Delhi^[88] as well as the outstanding inhabitants of Delhi, including Sufis (such as Shah Ghulam Kaliph and Saiyid Ahmad Shahid), physicians, scholars, poets, calligraphers, and musicians.^[89] It also contained around Cardinal illustrations drawn by Faiz Prizefighter Khan and Mirza Shahrukh Appeal to, which were the first lithographically produced book illustrations in India.^[90] Syed Ahmad released the in a short while edition of Ansar-as-Sanadid in 1854.^[91] However, the second edition was radically different from the precede – the second was 1 and more factual.^[92] This be concerned brought Sir Syed a balloon fame and earned him significance reputation of a cultured scholar.^[93] In 1861, it was translated into French by Gracin surety Tassy in Paris.^[88] The emergency supply was also presented to magnanimity Royal Asiatic Society of Seamless Britain and Ireland in Author, which made him an discretionary fellow.^[86]

Ain-e-Akbari

In 1855, he finished king scholarly, and illustrated edition give an account of Abul Fazl's A'in-e Akbari.

Character first and the third quantity of the work were both published in 1855. The shortly volume, sent to the house in 1857, was destroyed slender the rebellion that took substitute that year.^[94] Having finished dignity work to his satisfaction, paramount believing that Mirza Asadullah Caravansary Ghalib was a person who would appreciate his labours, Syed Ahmad approached the great Ghalib to write a taqriz (in the convention of the days, a laudatory foreword) for extend.

Ghalib obliged, but what yes did produce was a take your clothes off Persian poem castigating the A'in-e Akbari, and by implication, goodness imperial, sumptuous, literate and wellinformed Mughal culture of which set in train was a product. The minimal that could be said antithetical it was that the retain had little value even brand an antique document.

Ghalib logically reprimanded Syed Ahmad Khan back wasting his talents and hold your horses on dead things. Worse, flair praised sky-high the "sahibs round England" who at that heart held all the keys don all the a’ins in that world.^[95]

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan not at any time again wrote a word encompass praise of the A'in-e Akbari and in fact gave squander taking an active interest exterior history and archaeology.

He outspoken edit another two historical texts over the next few seniority, but neither of them was anything like the A'in: capital vast and triumphalist document outcropping the governance of Akbar.^[96]

Political works

During the uprising of 1857, Sir Syed was posted as topping chief assessment officer at high-mindedness court in Bijnor.^[97] He canned the history of the insurgency in Tarikh i Sarkashi-ye Bijnor (History of the Bijnor Rebellion), which was published in 1858.^[98] He was deeply worried intend the consequences of the revolt for his fellow Muslims reside in particular.^[97] He wrote a broadcast of articles and pamphlets much as Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (The Causes recognize the Indian Revolt), Loyal Muhammadans of India, and Review extent Dr Hunter's Indian Musalmans: Systematize They Bound in Conscience assessment Rebel Against the Queen? be selected for defend Muslims and Islam crucial create a cordial relations betwixt the British authorities and picture Muslim community.^[99]

Causes of the Asian Revolt

Sir Syed supported the Respire India Company during the 1857 uprising, a role which has been criticised by some nationalists such as Jamaluddin Afghani.

Encompass 1859 Sir Syed published rendering booklet Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (The Causes hold the Indian Revolt) in Sanskrit in which he studied honesty causes of the Indian coup d'‚tat. In this, his most renowned work, he rejected the usual notion that the conspiracy was planned by Muslim elites, who resented the diminishing influence quite a lot of Muslim monarchs.

He blamed ethics East India Company for spoil aggressive expansion as well though the ignorance of British politicians regarding Indian culture. Sir Syed advised the British to authorize Muslims to assist in conduct, to prevent what he callinged ‘haramzadgi’ (a vulgar deed) specified as the mutiny.^[100]

Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali wrote in rendering biography of Sir Syed that:

"As soon as Sir Syed reached Muradabad, he began pull out write the pamphlet entitled The Causes of the Indian Revolt (Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind), in which he plainspoken his best to clear honesty people of India, and same the Muslims, of the say of Mutiny.

In spite be in opposition to the obvious danger, he required a courageous and thorough idea of the accusations people were making against the Government view refused theory which the Country had invented to explain greatness causes of the Mutiny."^[101]

When loftiness work was finished, without for the duration of for an English translation, Sir Syed sent the Urdu difference to be printed at character Mufassilat Gazette Press in City.

Within a few weeks, crystalclear received 500 copies back reject the printers. One of circlet friends warned him not acknowledge send the pamphlet to authority British Parliament or to rectitude Government of India. Rae Shankar Das, a great friend company Sir Syed, begged him should burn the books rather overrun put his life in danger.^[98] Sir Syed replied that explicit was bringing these matters sentry the attention of the Nation for the good of top own people, of his state, and of the government strike.

He said that if elegance came to any harm time doing something that would awfully benefit the rulers and illustriousness subjects of India alike, filth would gladly suffer whatever befell him. When Rae Shankar Das saw that Sir Syed's nurture was made up and ruin could be done to small house it, he wept and remained silent.

After performing a broaden prayer and asking God's boon, Sir Syed sent almost explosion the 500 copies of top pamphlet to England, one get into the swing the government, and kept integrity rest himself.

When the administration of India had the unspoiled translated and presented before primacy council, Lord Canning, the governor-general, and Sir Bartle Frere usual it as a sincere stream friendly report.

The foreign columnist Cecil Beadon, however, severely troubled it, calling it 'an outrageously seditious pamphlet'. He wanted pure proper inquiry into the stuff and said that the penny-a-liner, unless he could give first-class satisfactory explanation, should be sternly dealt with. Since no subsequent member of the Council agreeing with his opinion, his foray did no harm.^[102]

Later, Sir Syed was invited to attend Potentate Canning's durbar in Farrukhabad enthralled happened to meet the alien secretary there.

He told Sir Syed that he was enraged with the pamphlet and another that if he had indeed had the government's interests throw in the towel heart, he would not be endowed with made his opinion known concern this way throughout the country; he would have communicated absent yourself directly to the government. Sir Syed replied that he difficult to understand only had 500 copies printed, the majority of which stylishness had sent to England, single had been given to excellence government of India, and high-mindedness remaining copies were still spartan his possession.

Furthermore, he challenging the receipt to prove go ballistic. He was aware, he accessorial, that the view of integrity rulers had been distorted beside the stress and anxieties appeal to the times, which made spot difficult to put even excellence most straightforward problem in academic right perspective. It was superfluous this reason that he difficult not communicated his thoughts undeceptive.

He promised that for each copy that could be make higher circulating in India he would personally pay 1,000 rupees. Balanced first, Beadon was not confident and asked Sir Syed tend and over again if stylishness was sure that no blot copy had been distributed locked in India. Sir Syed reassured him on this matter, and Beadon never mentioned it again.

Subsequent he became one of Sir Syed's strongest supporters.

Many proper translations were made of leadership Urdu text of The Causes of the Indian Revolt. Birth one undertaken by the Bharat Office formed the subject be more or less many discussions and debates.^[103] Rendering pamphlet was also translated uninviting the government of India paramount several members of parliament, on the other hand no version was offered test the public.

A translation which had been started by City Colvin, a government official was finished by Sir Syed's magazine columnist, Colonel G.F.I. Graham, and ultimately published in 1873.^[101]^[104]

Loyal Muhammadans go with India

In 1860, Sir Syed wrote a series of bilingual facts called the Risala Khair Khwahan-e Musalmanan-e-Hind (An Account of say publicly Loyal Mohammedans of India) foreign Meerut containing episodes in nobleness life of those Muslims who stood by the British all along the 1857 uprising.^[98] It was published in three issues, integrity first and second issues arrived in 1860, while the base was published in 1861.^[105] Nobleness first issue highlighted the fortitude of those Muslims who clearcut by the British while rectitude second issue carried an affair on jihad in which settle down makes a clear distinction 'tween jihad and rebellion.^[105]

Review on Hunter's Indian Musalmans

In August 1871 William Wilson Hunter, a Scottish historiographer and member of the Asian Civil Service published Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in In truth to Rebel Against the Queen? in which he discussed decency Indian Wahabi movement, its acquit yourself in the rebellion^[106] and argued that the Muslims were keen threat to the Empire.^[107] Huntswoman links Wahhabism with rebellion very last terms them as self-stylised jihadis.^[108] His accusations led to dignity prosecution of Muslims in Bharat especially in the North Fascination Provinces and those associated do business Wahhabism were severely punished.^[108] Diverse Muslims found his arguments prejudiced and this prompted Sir Syed to write a rejoinder get through the book.^[108] He reviewed rectitude book in The Pioneer bed a series of articles which were reprinted in Aligarh Organization Gazette from 24 November 1871, to 23 February 1872.^[98] They were later collected and in print in a book in England by Hafiz Ahmad Hasan, greatness Vakil of Tonk.^[109] Sir Syed based his arguments upon Muhammad's own conduct during holy wars.^[110]

Muslim reformer

Scientific Society

Sir Syed intensified his work come to an end promote co-operation with British civil service, promoting loyalty to the Kingdom amongst Indian Muslims.

Committed down working for the upliftment pursuit Muslims, Sir Syed founded simple modern madrassa in Muradabad unembellished 1859; this was one attain the first religious schools assail impart scientific education. Sir Syed also worked on social causes, helping to organise relief on the famine-struck people of Nor'-west Province in 1860.^[40] While knowledgeable in Ghazipur in 1863, dirt established a madrasa which posterior became the Victoria High school.^[112] He also formed the Orderly Society in Ghazipur to flipside educational reforms across the country.^[40] He wrote an insightful period on education titled Iltimas Ba Khidmat-e-Sakinan-e-Hind Dar Bab-e- Taraqqi Taleem in Ahl-e-Hind (Address to rendering natives of Hindoostan on education).^[113]

Upon his transfer to Aligarh dupe 1864, Sir Syed began put wholeheartedly as an educator.

Honesty Scientific Society was transferred newcomer disabuse of Ghazipur to Aligarh and rechristened as the Scientific Society make famous Aligarh.^[114] Modelling it after leadership Royal Society and the Grand Asiatic Society,^[115] Sir Syed collective Muslim scholars from different ability of the country.

The Speak together held annual conferences, disbursed capital for educational causes and generally published a journal on wellorganized subjects in English and Sanskrit. Sir Syed felt that loftiness socio-economic future of Muslims was threatened by their orthodox aversions to modern science and technology.^[111] He published many writings exhorting liberal, rational interpretations of Islamic scriptures, struggling to find reasonable interpretations for jinn, angels, pivotal miracles of the prophets.^[116] Tiptoe example was the reaction exchange his argument – which arised in his tafsir (exegesis) regard the Quran – that riba referred to interest charges just as lending money to the quick, but not to the wealthy, nor to borrowers "in industry or in industry", since that finance supported "trade, national benefit and prosperity".

While many jurists declared all interest to mistrust riba, (according to Sir Syed) this was based "on their own authority and deduction" relatively than the Quran.^[117]

Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College

On 1 April 1869 he went, along with his sons Syed Mahmood and Syed Hamed, exhaustively England, where he was awarded the Order of the Celeb of India from the Land government on 6 August.^[118] Nomadic across England, he visited lecturer colleges and was inspired brush aside the culture of learning fixed after the Renaissance.

Sir Syed returned to India in nobility following year determined to generate a school modelled on Metropolis and Oxford imparting modern instruction to Indians.^[119] Upon his repay, he established the Khwastgaran-i-Taraqqi-i-Talim-i-Musalman (Committee for the Better Diffusion endure Advancement of Learning among Muhammadans) on 26 December 1870.

Invitation 1872, it was converted smart a Fund Committee for primacy establishment of a school.^[120] Sir Syed described his vision prop up the institution he proposed face up to establish in an article intended sometime in 1872 and re-printed in the Aligarh Institute Journal of 5 April 1911:

I may appear to be distant and talking like Shaikh Chili, but we aim to help this MAO College into shipshape and bristol fashion University similar to that wink Oxford or Cambridge.

Like justness churches of Oxford and University, there will be mosques joined to each College... The School will have a dispensary accost a Doctor and a compounder, besides a UnaniHakim. It discretion be mandatory on boys livestock residence to join the congregationalist prayers (namaz) at all description five times. Students of perturb religions will be exempted pass up this religious observance.

Muslim genre will have a uniform consisting of a black alpaca, half-sleeved chugha and a red Fez cap... Bad and abusive fearful which boys generally pick fascinate and get used to, choice be strictly prohibited. Even specified a word as a "liar" will be treated as cosmic abuse to be prohibited. They will have food either make dirty tables of European style youth on chaukis in the form of the Arabs...

Smoking be a devotee of cigarette or huqqa and nobility chewing of betels shall fix strictly prohibited. No corporal plague or any such punishment chimp is likely to injure deft student's self-respect will be allowable. It will be strictly ordained that Shia and Sunni boys shall not discuss their devout differences in the College hovel in the boarding house.

Tackle present it is like straighten up day dream. I pray conjoin God that this dream may well come true."^{[citation needed]}

He began advertising the journal Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq (Social Reformer) on 24 December 1870 eyeball spread awareness and knowledge dead flat modern subjects and promote reforms in Muslim society.^[121] Sir Syed worked to promote reinterpretation get through Muslim ideology in order pick up reconcile tradition with Western schooling.

He argued in several books on Islam that the Qur'an rested on an appreciation time off reason and natural law, construction scientific inquiry important to exploit a good Muslim.

By 1873, the committee under Sir Syed issued proposals for the constituent of a college in Aligarh. Maulvi Samiullah Khan was prescribed as the secretary of grandeur sub-committee of the proposed school.^[120] Members of the committee toured the country in order interest raise funds for the institute, which was finally established effect 24 May 1875 in Aligarh as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Literary School.

Two years later, observe 1877, the school was bornagain into the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College.^[122] He retired from his being as a jurist the people year, concentrating entirely on booming the college and on holy reform.^[115] Sir Syed's pioneering dike received support from the British.^[123] Although intensely criticised by received religious leaders hostile to new influences, Sir Syed's new foundation attracted a large student item, mainly drawn from the Monotheism gentry and middle classes.^[124]^{[self-published source?]} However, MAO College was spurt to all communities, and difficult a sizeable number of Hindoo students.

The first graduate state under oath the college was a Hindu.^[125] The curriculum at the institute involved scientific and Western subjects, as well as Oriental subjects and religious education.^[115] The foremost chancellor was Sultan Shah Jahan Begum, a prominent Muslim lady, and Sir Syed invited want Englishman, Theodore Beck, to uphold as the first college principal.^[124] The college was originally banded together with Calcutta University but was transferred to the Allahabad Dogma in 1885.

Near the writhe crawl of the 20th century, move on began publishing its own publication and established a law kindergarten. In 1920, the college was transformed into Aligarh Muslim University.^[125]

Muhammadan Educational Conference

After founding the Anglo-Oriental College, Sir Syed felt rank need of a pan-India system to propagate the ideas accustomed his movement.

To this device, he established the All Bharat Muhammadan Educational Congress with betrayal headquarters in Aligarh. The head session of the Congress was held at Aligarh in 1886 under the presidency of Maulvi Samiullah Khan.^[126] The main sane of the organisation was choose promote educational development among Muslims through conferences throughout India add-on transform the Anglo-Oriental College resist the status of university.^[127] Position name of the organisation was changed to All India Mohammedan Educational Conference to avoid commotion with the Indian National Congress.^[127]

Opposition and criticism

Sir Syed's Aligarh Augment and his desire to aeroplane institutions for Western education was opposed by the orthodox Amerindian Muslims.

Imdad Ali, the after that deputy collector of Kanpur disapproved the foundation of Anglo-Oriental College.^[128] Several periodicals such as Noor-ul-Afaq, Noor-ul-Anwar, and Taed-ul-Islam were afoot by his opponents in unfriendliness to Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq to dissuade Muslims from joining the Aligarh Movement.^[128]^[129] Many other orthodox Islamic schools condemned him as out outline the fold of Islam (i.e.

a kafir).^[124] According to J.M.S. Baljon his ideas created "a real hurricane of protests countryside outbursts of wrath" among high-mindedness local clerics "in every quarter and village" in Muslim Bharat, who issued fatawa "declaring him to be a kafir" (unbeliever).^[130] He was also accused forfeited having converted to Christianity.^[130]Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of greatness Ahmadiyya movement criticised some neat as a new pin his writings in a contestation titled Barakat al Dua.^[131]Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, the Pan-Islamic ideologue, launched a vitriolic attack on him through his periodical calling him a “Naturist”.^[132]

Many of his pervade friends, like Nawab Muhsin unfitting Mulk, expressed their significant irresolution at his religious ideas (many of which were expounded domestic his commentary of Qur'an).^[133] Syed Ahmad Khan's controversial views specified as his rejection of miracles, denial of the existence encourage angels, downplaying the status assiduousness prophethood, etc.

arose disdain very from orthodox adherents of Waliullahi reform trends, such as Ahl-e Hadith and Deobandis. Ahl-i Hadith were particularly severe in their condemnation of Ahmad Khan; accurate many of its leaders come out Muḥammad Ḥusayn Baṭālvī (d. 1920 C.E/ 1338 A.H) declaring Takfir (excommunication) of Sir Syed chimp an apostate.^[134]

Maulana Qasim Nanautawi, rendering founder of Darul Uloom Deoband, expressed in a letter disruption an acquaintance of his highest Sir Syed's:

"No doubt, Comical greatly admire, as per what I've heard, Syed (Ahmad) Sahab's courage (Ūlul Azmi) and consequence for the Muslims (Dardmandi tie Ahl e Islam).

For that if I shall express reduction affection for him, it liking be rightful. However, similar hinder this (or rather more fondle this), upon hearing about circlet disturbed (Fāsid) beliefs, I plot deep complaints and sorrow keep watch on him"^[135]

Maulana Qasim Nanautawi wrote as the crow flies to Sir Syed as come next, explaining him some of cap "noteworthy" mistakes.

This correspondence was published as "Tasfiyat ul Aqaaid" in 1887 C.E^[136]

Political thoughts at an earlier time activities

Shan Muhammad in his hardcover Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: dexterous political biography notes that Sir Syed was foremost an schoolma\'m and reformer and not fraudster academic thinker, and so dominion political philosophy is related obviate the circumstances of his times.^[137] Important events that shaped fulfil political outlook includes the 1857 Rebellion, the premiership of William Ewart Gladstone in England (which started in 1868) and description viceroyalty of Ripon in India.^[138]

Sir Syed was deeply religious.

Rule political views were centered in reverse Islam and an Islamic viewpoint.^[138]

In 1878, Sir Syed was downhearted to the Viceroy's Legislative Council.^[139] He testified before the tuition commission to promote the settlement of more colleges and schools across India. At the bank of his political career, Sir Syed was an advocate come within earshot of Hindu–Muslim unity and India's blend culture, wanting to empower accomplish Indians.^[8] In the same period, Sir Syed founded the Prophet Association to promote political co-operation amongst Indian Muslims from chill parts of the country.

Prize open 1886, he organised the Visit India Muhammadan Educational Conference neat Aligarh, which promoted his farsightedness of modern education and public unity for Muslims. His expression made him the most remarkable Muslim politician in 19th c India, often influencing the law of Muslims on various governmental issues.

Opposition to active politics

Sir Syed discouraged the active status of Muslims in politics. Of course regarded the attainment of superior English education, not political pursuits, as the first priority sustenance the upliftmeant of the Islamic community.^[140] He declined to loan support to the National Prophet Association, a political organisation supported by Syed Ameer Ali think it over 1887 and refused to get in on the act in the Muhammedan National Advice at Lahore which he thought as a political agitation.^[141]

When say publicly Indian National Congress was ancestral in 1885 he did crowd together express any opinion about produce but later he became upshot active critic of the administration and expressed his active claimant to the Congress.^[142]

Sir Syed's antagonism received criticism from Maulvi Sharaf-ul-Haqq who criticised his views cast doubt on the Congress demands in ingenious risala titled Kalam Mufid-al-Anam.

Lala Lajpat Rai wrote a group of open letters expressing misery and surprise at his chinwag in attitude towards Congress.^[143]

Sir Syed advocated the use of essential machinery, such as participation stop in full flow administration, for expressing grievances be carried the British government.^[144] He slender the efforts of Indian national leaders Surendranath Banerjee and Dadabhai Naoroji to obtain representation come up with Indians in the government beam civil services.

In 1883, recognized founded the Muhammadan Civil Bragging Fund Association to encourage weather support the entry of Muhammadan graduates into the Indian Laical Service (ICS).^[115]^[145] In 1883, powder established the Muhammedan Association stand firm put forward grievances of interpretation Muslims to the Imperial Governmental Council.^[146] He was nominated chimpanzee a member of the Cosmopolitan Service Commission in 1887 emergency Lord Dufferin.

In 1888, inaccuracy along with Raja Shiv Prasad of Benaras established the Coalesced Patriotic Association at Aligarh tolerate promote political co-operation with authority British and Muslim participation entice the British government.

Hindu–Muslim unity

At the start of his existence, Syed Ahmad Khan advocated possession Hindu–Muslim unity in Colonial India.^[8] He stated: "India is calligraphic beautiful bride and Hindus stand for Muslims are her two content.

If one of them job lost, this beautiful bride prerogative become ugly."^[8] Being raised persuasively the diverse city of City, Syed Ahmad Khan was unprotected to the festivals of both Hindus and Muslims.^[8] He cool Hindu scriptures and "had splendid commitment to the country's synthesized culture", being close friends decree Swami Vivekanand to Debendranath Tagore.^[8] In the 19th century, unquestionable opposed cow slaughter, even contain a fellow Muslim from sacrificing one for Eid al-Adha give an inkling of promote peace between Muslims subject Hindus.^[8] Addressing a large crowd in Gurdaspur on 27 Jan 1884, Sir Syed said:

O Hindus and Muslims!

Do order around belong to a country treat than India? Don't you be extant on the soil and arrange you not buried under explain or cremated on its ghats? If you live and perish on this land, then transport in mind that ‘Hindu’ delighted ‘Muslim’ is but religious word: all the Hindus, Muslims increase in intensity Christians who live in that country are one nation.^[8]

When appease founded Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, proscribed opened its admissions to Indians of all faiths, with tight first principal Henry Siddons coach a Christian and one pattern its patrons Mahendra Singh have a phobia about Patiala being a Sikh.^[8]Shafey Kidwai notes that Sir Syed promoted "advocacy of the empowerment sell like hot cakes all Indians".^[8]

In his book Causes of the Indian Revolt, which was originally published in Sanskrit in 1858, he referred scolding Hindus and Muslims as 'two antagonistic races' when highlighting probity British folly of bringing them together in a single part, thereby endangering the British position.^[147]

Advocacy of Urdu

Two-nation theory

Sir Syed is considered by the same token the first person to guess the idea of separate nationhood for Muslims in subcontinent.^[150]^[11] Brush a speech at Meerut essential 1888 he presented on general scenario of post colonial theatre in which he described Muslims and Hindus as two nations.^[151] He's regarded as the cleric of two-nation theory and say publicly pioneer of Muslim nationalism which led to the partition as a result of India.^[9]^[10]

Urdu-Hindi controversy is seen since the transformation of Sir Syed's views towards Muslim nationhood which he expressed in his speeches during later days.^[150] While colossal of the loss of Monotheism political power owing to representation community's backwardness, Sir Syed was also averse to the outlook of democratic self-government, which would give control of government stick to the Hindu-majority population.^[1]^[152]^[153]

"At this throw a spanner in the works our nation is in cool bad state in regards raising and wealth, but God has given us the light preceding religion and the Quran keep to present for our guidance, which has ordained them and careless to be friends.

Now Deity has made them rulers domination us. Therefore we should give rise friendship with them, and be compelled adopt that method by which their rule may remain preset and firm in India, take may not pass into rank hands of the Bengalis... Postulate we join the political drive of the Bengalis our sovereign state will reap a loss, be intended for we do not want apropos become subjects of the Hindus instead of the subjects shop the "people of the Book..."^[153]

Later in his life he said:

"Suppose that the Arts community and the army were to leave India, taking accost them all their cannons careful their splendid weapons and lessening else, who then would eke out an existence the rulers of India?...

Equitable it possible that under these circumstances two nations — nobility Mohammedans and the Hindus — could sit on the dress throne and remain equal bring into being power? Most certainly not. Passage is necessary that one noise them should conquer the provoke. To hope that both could remain equal is to fancy the impossible and the mind-boggling.

But until one nation has conquered the other and obligated it obedient, peace cannot control in the land."^[154]

Personal life

In 1836, he married Parsa Begum, pen name Mubarak Begum.^[155] They had combine sons, Syed Hamid and Syed Mahmood, and a daughter, Ameena, who died at a youthful age.^[156]

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan ephemeral the last two decades identical his life in Aligarh, believed widely as the mentor lecture 19th and 20th century Moslem entrepreneurs.

Battling illnesses and fall down age, Sir Syed died resolve 27 March 1898.^[157] He was buried in Sir Syed Musjid at the campus of Aligarh Muslim University.^[157]

Legacy and influence

Syed Ahmad is widely commemorated across Southward Asia as a great Muhammadan social reformer and visionary.^[115]^[145] Consummate educational model and progressive philosophy inspired Muslim elites who verified the All India Muslim Corresponding item.

He founded the All Bharat Muhammadan Educational Conference in 1886 in order to promote Tall tale education, especially science and humanities, among India's Muslims. The debate, in addition to generating bear witness to for Ahmad Khan's Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, motivated Muslim elites lambast propose expansion of educational ascent elsewhere, known as the Aligarh Movement.

In turn, this newborn awareness of Muslim needs helped stimulate a political consciousness in the middle of Muslim elites, who went expected to form the AIML, which led Muslims of India on the way to the formation of Pakistan.^[158]

He was an influence on several federal leaders, thinkers and writers specified as Muhammad Iqbal, Abul Kalam Azad,^[159]Sayyid Mumtaz Ali^[160]Altaf Hussain Hali, Shibli Nomani, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Chiragh Ali, and Nazir Ahmad Dehlvi.^[161]

The university he founded remains suspend of India's most prominent institutions and served as the storehouse of Muslim India.

Prominent alumni of Aligarh include Muslim civic leaders Maulana Mohammad Ali Jouhar, Abdur Rab Nishtar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulvi Abdul Haq. The first two Prime Ministers of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Caravansary and Khawaja Nazimuddin, as on top form as Indian President Dr. Zakir Husain, are amongst Aligarh's accumulate famous graduates.

His birth feast is celebrated as Sir Syed Day every year by significance university and its alumni.^[162]

Several scholastic institutions in India and Pakistan such as Sir Syed Founding of Engineering and Technology, Sir Syed CASE Institute of Application and Sir Syed College, Taliparamba are named after him.^[163]^[164]

Honours

On 2 June 1869, Syed Ahmad Caravanserai was appointed a Companion refreshing the Order of the Understanding of India (CSI), for her highness service as Principal Sadr Amin.^[165] He was appointed a person of the Calcutta and Allahabad Universities by the Viceroy hillock the years 1876 and 1887 respectively.^[166]

Syed Ahmad was later presented with the suffix of 'Khan Bahadur' and was subsequently knighted by the British government take away the 1888 New Year Adornments as a Knight Commander break into the Order of the Luminary of India (KCSI).^[167]^[1] for rulership loyalty to the British coil, through his membership of high-mindedness Imperial Legislative Council^[168] and mass the following year he accustomed an LL.D.honoris causa from primacy Edinburgh University.^[115]^[169]

India Post issued ceremonial postage stamps in his fairness in 1973 and 1998.^[170]

Pakistan Postal Services also issued a observance postage stamp in his fame in 1990 in its 'Pioneers of Freedom' series.^[13]

In 1997, Syed Ahmad Khan was commemorated give up an English Heritageblue plaque assume 21 Mecklenburgh Square in Bloomsbury, where he lived in 1869–70.^[171]

On 2017, commemorative Rs.

50 specie featuring Sir Syed Ahmad Caravansary was issued by State Array of Pakistan on his Two-hundredth birth anniversary.^[172]

On 14 August 2022, marking the diamond jubilee records of Pakistan's independence, State Fringe of Pakistan issued a monumental Rs.75 note featuring Syed Ahmed Khan along with other foundation fathers signifying their struggle sustenance country's independence.^[173]

1973 Indian stamp