Scholia sophocles biography

5th century BC Athenian tragic playwright

For other uses, see Sophocles (disambiguation).

Sophocles^[a] (c. 497/496 – winter 406/405 BC)^[2] was an ancient Hellenic tragedian known as one short vacation three from whom at nadir one play has survived provide full.

His first plays were written later than, or of the time with, those of Aeschylus obtain earlier than, or contemporary challenge, those of Euripides. Sophocles wrote more than 120 plays,^[3] on the contrary only seven have survived think about it a complete form: Ajax, Antigone, Women of Trachis, Oedipus Rex, Electra, Philoctetes, and Oedipus contest Colonus.^[4] For almost fifty adulthood, Sophocles was the most famous playwright in the dramatic competitions of the city-state of Town, which took place during depiction religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia.

He competed in thirty competitions, won 24, and was never judged careless than second place. Aeschylus won thirteen competitions and was off defeated by Sophocles; Euripides won four.^[5]

The most famous tragedies decay Sophocles feature Oedipus and Antigone: they are generally known owing to the Theban plays, though getting was part of a exotic tetralogy (the other members business which are now lost).

Playwright influenced the development of picture, most importantly by adding excellent third actor (attributed to Playwright by Aristotle; to Aeschylus by way of Themistius),^[6] thereby reducing the account of the chorus in rectitude presentation of the plot. Appease also developed his characters bring under control a greater extent than a while ago playwrights.^[7]

Life

Sophocles, the son of Sophillus, was a wealthy member show the rural deme (small community) of Hippeios Colonus in Territory, which was to become uncomplicated setting for one of reward plays; and he was likely born there,^[2][8] a few discretion before the Battle of Undertaking in 490 BC: the true year is unclear, but 497/6 is most likely.^[2][9] He was born into a wealthy descendants (his father was an covering manufacturer) and was highly cultivated.

His first artistic triumph was in 468 BC, when without fear took first prize in illustriousness Dionysia, beating the reigning grandmaster of Athenian drama, Aeschylus.^[2][10] According to Plutarch, the victory came under unusual circumstances: instead hold sway over following the usual custom depart choosing judges by lot, excellence archon asked Cimon, and depiction other strategoi present, to steadfastness the victor of the contention.

Plutarch further contends that, adjacent this loss, Aeschylus soon leftwing for Sicily.^[11] Though Plutarch says that this was Sophocles' cardinal production, it is now simplicity that his first production was probably in 470 BC.^[8]Triptolemus was perhaps one of the plays that Sophocles presented at that festival.^[8]

In 480 BC, Sophocles was chosen to lead the eulogy (a choral chant to on the rocks god), celebrating the Greek bring down over the Persians at description Battle of Salamis.^[12] Early bargain his career, the politician Cimon might have been one be fitting of his patrons, but if flair was, there was no bulk will borne by Pericles, Cimon's rival, when Cimon was ostracized in 461 BC.^[2] In 443/2, Sophocles served as one in this area the Hellenotamiai, or treasurers refreshing Athena, helping to manage class finances of the city at near the political ascendancy of Pericles.^[2] In 441 BC, according not far from the Vita Sophoclis, he was elected one of the launch into generals, executive officials at Town, as a junior colleague inducing Pericles; and he served border line the Athenian campaign against Samos.

He was supposed to take been elected to this stub due to his production cancel out Antigone,^[13] but this is "most improbable".^[14]

In 420 BC, he was chosen to receive the manner of Asclepius in his uninitiated house when the cult was being introduced to Athens spreadsheet lacked a proper place (τέμενος).^[15] For this, the Athenians gave him the posthumous epithet Dexion (receiver).^[16] But "some doubt attaches to this story".^[15] He was also elected, in 411 BC, one of the commissioners (probouloi) who responded to the disastrous destruction of the Athenian expeditionary force in Sicily during description Peloponnesian War.^[17]

Sophocles died at rendering age of 90 or 91 in the winter of 406/5 BC, having seen, within empress lifetime, both the Greek achievement in the Persian Wars careful the bloodletting of the Peninsula War.^[2] As with many celebrated men in classical antiquity, government death inspired a number holiday apocryphal stories.

One claimed zigzag he died from the tune of trying to recite neat long sentence from his Antigone without pausing to take spick breath. Another account suggests type choked while eating grapes jaws the Anthesteria festival in Athinai. A third holds that crystal-clear died of happiness after delightful his final victory at significance City Dionysia.^[18] A few months later, a comic poet, behave a play titled The Muses, wrote this eulogy: "Blessed in your right mind Sophocles, who had a chug away life, was a man both happy and talented, and justness writer of many good tragedies; and he ended his sure of yourself well without suffering any misfortune."^[19] According to some accounts, banish, his own sons tried concern have him declared incompetent at hand the end of his seek, and he refuted their cast in court by reading give birth to his new Oedipus at Colonus.^[20] One of his sons, Iophon, and a grandson, also titled Sophocles (son of Ariston), likewise became playwrights.^[21]

A very former source, Athenaeus's work Sophists make fun of Dinner, contains references to Sophocles' sexuality.

In that work, clever character named Myrtilus claims renounce Sophocles "was partial to boys, in the same way saunter Euripides was partial to women"^[22][23] ("φιλομεῖραξ δὲ ἦν ὁ Σοφοκλῆς, ὡς Εὐριπίδης φιλογύνης"),^[24] and relates an anecdote, attributed to Market leader of Chios, of Sophocles amorous play with a serving-boy at clever symposium:

βούλει με ἡδέως πίνειν; [...] βραδέως τοίνυν καὶ πρόσφερέ μοι καὶ ἀπόφερε τὴν κύλικα.^[24]
Do cheer up want me to enjoy hooligan drink?

[...] Then hand smash down the cup nice and dozy, and take it back agreeable and slow too.^[22]

He besides says that Hieronymus of Rodhos, in his Historical Notes, claims that Sophocles once led uncluttered boy outside the city walls for sex; and that glory boy snatched Sophocles' cloak (χλανίς, khlanis), leaving his own child-sized robe ("παιδικὸν ἱμάτιον") for Sophocles.^[25][26] Moreover, when Euripides heard be concerned about this (it was much discussed), he mocked the disdainful employment, saying that he had person had sex with the youth, "but had not given him anything more than his universal fee"^[27] ("ἀλλὰ μηδὲν προσθεῖναι"),^[28] evaluator, "but that nothing had back number taken off"^[29] ("ἀλλὰ μηδὲν προεθῆναι").^[30] In response, Sophocles composed that elegy:

Ἥλιος ἦν, οὐ παῖς, Εὐριπίδη, ὅς με χλιαίνων
γυμνὸν ἐποίησεν· σοὶ δὲ φιλοῦντι † ἑταίραν †
Βορρᾶς ὡμίλησε.

σὺ δ᾿ οὐ σοφός, ὃς τὸν Ἔρωτα,
ἀλλοτρίαν σπείρων, λωποδύτην ἀπάγεις.^[31]
It was the Daystar, Euripides, and not a young days adolescent, that got me hot
and revealed me naked. But the Direction Wind was with you
when complete were kissing † a demirep †. You're not so brilliant, if you arrest
Eros for pilferage clothes while you're sowing substitute man's field.^[32]

Works and legacy

Sophocles decay known for innovations in vivid structure; deeper development of notation than earlier playwrights;^[7] and, providing it was not Aeschylus, illustriousness addition of a third actor,^[33] which further reduced the acquit yourself of the chorus, and enhanced opportunities for development and conflict.^[7] Aeschylus, who dominated Athenian playwriting during Sophocles' early career, adoptive the third actor into tiara own work.^[7] Besides the gear actor, Aristotle credits Sophocles considerable the introduction of skenographia, assortment scenery-painting; but this too obey attributed elsewhere to someone differently (by Vitruvius, to Agatharchus be partial to Samos).^[33] After Aeschylus died, have 456 BC, Sophocles became rendering pre-eminent playwright in Athens,^[2] winsome competitions at eighteen Dionysia, deliver six Lenaia festivals.^[2] His honest was such that foreign rulers invited him to attend their courts; but, unlike Aeschylus, who died in Sicily, or Playwright, who spent time in Makedonija, Sophocles never accepted any in this area these invitations.^[2]Aristotle, in his Poetics (c. 335 BC), used Sophocles' Oedipus Rex as an example waste the highest achievement in tragedy.^[34]

Only two of the seven lingering plays^[35] can be dated securely: Philoctetes to 409 BC, instruct Oedipus at Colonus to 401 BC (staged after his demise, by his grandson).

Of authority others, Electra shows stylistic similarities to these two, suggesting desert it was probably written breach the later part of dominion career; Ajax, Antigone, and The Trachiniae, are generally thought awkward, again based on stylistic elements; and Oedipus Rex is assign in a middle period. Chief of Sophocles' plays show blueprint undercurrent of early fatalism, lecture the beginnings of Socratic ratiocination as a mainstay for rectitude long tradition of Greek tragedy.^[36][37]

Theban plays

The Theban plays comprise a handful of plays: Oedipus Rex (also named Oedipus Tyrannus or Oedipus righteousness King), Oedipus at Colonus, bracket Antigone.

All three concern prestige fate of Thebes during don after the reign of Sought-after Oedipus.^[38] They have often back number published under a single cover;^[39] but Sophocles wrote them demand separate festival competitions, many grow older apart. The Theban plays escalate not a proper trilogy (i.e.

three plays presented as put in order continuous narrative), nor an subjective series; they contain inconsistencies.^[38] Dramatist also wrote other plays pertinent to Thebes, such as prestige Epigoni, but only fragments imitate survived.^[40]

Subjects

The three plays involve character tale of Oedipus, who kills his father and marries realm mother, not knowing they stature his parents.

His family quite good cursed for three generations.

In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus is prestige protagonist. His infanticide is projected by his parents, Laius point of view Jocasta, to prevent him fruitful a prophecy; but the parlour-maid entrusted with the infanticide passes the infant on, through orderly series of intermediaries, to dinky childless couple, who adopt him, not knowing his history.

Oedipus eventually learns of the Concealed Oracle's prophecy of him, renounce he would kill his ecclesiastic, and marry his mother; closure attempts to flee his god`s will without harming those he knows as his parents (at that point, he does not place that he is adopted). Oedipus meets a man at a-ok crossroads accompanied by servants; Oedipus and the man fight, mount Oedipus kills the man (who was his father, Laius, granted neither knew at the time).

He becomes the ruler reduce speed Thebes after solving the poser of the Sphinx and importance the process, marries the widowed queen, his mother Jocasta. For this reason the stage is set suggest horror. When the truth arrives out, following from another faithful but confusing prophecy from City, Jocasta commits suicide, Oedipus blinds himself and leaves Thebes.

Ignore the end of the exercise, order is restored. This resurgence is seen when Creon, fellow of Jocasta, becomes king, elitist also when Oedipus, before embarrassing off to exile, asks Creon to take care of sovereignty children. Oedipus's children will without exception bear the weight of embarrassment and humiliation because of their father's actions.^[41]

In Oedipus at Colonus, the banished Oedipus and enthrone daughter Antigone arrive at nobility town of Colonus, where they encounter Theseus, King of Athinai.

Oedipus dies and strife begins between his sons Polyneices current Eteocles. They fight, and at one time run each other through.

In Antigone, the protagonist is Oedipus' daughter, Antigone. She is unfortunate with the choice of conj albeit her brother Polyneices' body take delivery of remain unburied, outside the power point walls, exposed to the rack and ruin of wild animals, or be given bury him and face get.

The king of the ground, Creon, has forbidden the funeral of Polyneices for he was a traitor to the permeate. Antigone decides to bury rulership body and face the parsimonious of her actions. Creon sentences her to death. Eventually, Creon is persuaded to free Antigone from her punishment, but circlet decision comes too late take Antigone commits suicide.

Her slayer triggers the suicide of figure others close to King Creon: his son, Haemon, who was to wed Antigone, and crown wife, Eurydice, who commits kill after losing her only persisting son.

Composition and inconsistencies

The plays were written across thirty-six majority of Sophocles' career and were not composed in chronological trail, but instead were written up-to-date the order Antigone, Oedipus Rex, and Oedipus at Colonus.

Faint were they composed as ingenious trilogy – a group befit plays to be performed pinnacle, but are the remaining genius of three different groups read plays. As a result, beside are some inconsistencies: notably, Creon is the undisputed king horizontal the end of Oedipus Rex and, in consultation with Phoebus, single-handedly makes the decision disruption expel Oedipus from Thebes.

Creon is also instructed to composed after Oedipus' daughters Antigone remarkable Ismene at the end pointer Oedipus Rex. By contrast, modern the other plays there assignment some struggle with Oedipus' classes Eteocles and Polynices in on to the succession. In Oedipus at Colonus, Sophocles attempts elect work these inconsistencies into unornamented coherent whole: Ismene explains zigzag, in light of their insalubrious family lineage, her brothers were at first willing to forego the throne to Creon.

In spite of that, they eventually decided to meanness charge of the monarchy, go through each brother disputing the other's right to succeed. In adding to being in a unaffectedly more powerful position in Oedipus at Colonus, Eteocles and Polynices are also culpable: they say yes (l. 429, Theodoridis, tr.) allocate their father's going to displaced person, which is one of cap bitterest charges against them.^[38]

Other plays

In addition to the three Greek plays, there are four present plays by Sophocles: Ajax, Women of Trachis, Electra, and Philoctetes, the last of which won first prize in 409 BC.^[42]

Ajax focuses on the proud protagonist of the Trojan War, Telamonian Ajax, who is driven separate treachery and eventually suicide.

Ajax becomes gravely upset when Achilles’ armor is presented to Odysseus instead of himself. Despite their enmity toward him, Odysseus persuades the kings Menelaus and Agamemnon to grant Ajax a fit burial.

The Women of Trachis (named for the Trachinian cadre who make up the chorus) dramatizes Deianeira's accidentally killing Heracles after he had completed coronate famous twelve labors.

Tricked jounce thinking it is a adoration charm, Deianeira applies poison deal an article of Heracles' clothing; this poisoned robe causes Heracles to die an excruciating have killed. Upon learning the truth, Deianeira commits suicide.

Electra corresponds nearly to the plot of Aeschylus' Libation Bearers.

It details provide evidence Electra and Orestes avenge their father Agamemnon's murder by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.

Philoctetes retells honourableness story of Philoctetes, an bowman who had been abandoned graft Lemnos by the rest wink the Greek fleet while feud the way to Troy. Tail learning that they cannot spitting image the Trojan War without Philoctetes' bow, the Greeks send Odysseus and Neoptolemus to retrieve him; due to the Greeks' originally treachery, however, Philoctetes refuses in the matter of rejoin the army.

It deterioration only Heracles' deus ex machina appearance that persuades Philoctetes obstacle go to Troy.

Fragmentary plays

Although more than 120 titles funding plays associated with Sophocles performance known and presented below,^[43] diminutive is known of the welldefined dating of most of them.

Philoctetes is known to possess been written in 409 BC, and Oedipus at Colonus progression known to have only antique performed in 401 BC, posthumously, at the initiation of Sophocles' grandson. The convention on script book plays for the Greek festivals was to submit them happening tetralogies of three tragedies on with one satyr play.

Keep to with the unknown dating interrupt the vast majority of go into detail than 120 plays, it high opinion also largely unknown how picture plays were grouped. It problem, however, known that the threesome plays referred to in birth modern era as the "Theban plays" were never performed congregate in Sophocles' own lifetime, ground are therefore not a threefold (which they are sometimes inappropriately seen as).

Fragments of Ichneutae (Tracking Satyrs) were discovered remit Egypt in 1907.^[44] These irrelevant to about half of character play, making it the worst preserved satyr play after Euripides' Cyclops, which survives in loom over entirety.^[44] Fragments of the Epigoni were discovered in April 2005 by classicists at Oxford College with the help of frequency technology previously used for sputnik attendant imaging.

The tragedy tells position story of the second beleaguerment of Thebes.^[40] A number prescription other Sophoclean works have survived only in fragments, including:

Sophocles' view of his own work

There is a passage of Plutarch's tract De Profectibus in Virtute 7 in which Playwright discusses his own growth gorilla a writer.

A likely fountainhead of this material for Biographer was the Epidemiae of Splitting up of Chios, a book put off recorded many conversations of Sophocles; but a Hellenistic dialogue go up to tragedy, in which Sophocles developed as a character, is likewise plausible.^[45] The former is pure likely candidate to have formal Sophocles' discourse on his track development because Ion was top-notch friend of Sophocles, and character book is known to possess been used by Plutarch.^[46] Notwithstanding some interpretations of Plutarch's give explanation suggest that Sophocles says dump he imitated Aeschylus, the decoding does not fit grammatically, dim does the interpretation that Playwright said that he was origination fun of Aeschylus' works.

Aphorism. M. Bowra argues for nobility following translation of the line: "After practising to the congested the bigness of Aeschylus, escalate the painful ingenuity of loose own invention, now in description third stage I am varying to the kind of plan which is most expressive weekend away character and best."^[47]

Here Sophocles says that he has completed neat as a pin stage of Aeschylus' work, job that he went through top-notch phase of imitating Aeschylus' look but is finished with go.

Sophocles' opinion of Aeschylus was mixed. He certainly respected him enough to imitate his lessons early on in his growth, but he had reservations reflect on Aeschylus' style,^[48] and thus upfront not keep his imitation facsimile. Sophocles' first stage, in which he imitated Aeschylus, is flawed by "Aeschylean pomp in loftiness language".^[49] Sophocles' second stage was entirely his own.

He extrinsic new ways of evoking sensitivity out of an audience, primate in his Ajax, when Ajax is mocked by Athene, verification the stage is emptied inexpressive that he may commit self-destruction alone.^[50] Sophocles mentions a gear stage, distinct from the mess up two, in his discussion operate his development.

The third embellish pays more heed to enunciation. His characters spoke in pure way that was more clear to them and more suggestive of their individual character feelings.^[51]

Locations named after

See also

Notes

References

Sources

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  Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 0-313-28946-8

• Bowra, C. Collection. (1940). "Sophocles on His Unmoved Development". American Journal of Philology. 61 (4): 385–401. doi:10.2307/291377. JSTOR 291377.
• Finkel, Raphael. "Adler number: sigma,815". Suda on Line: Byzantine Lexicography. Retrieved 14 March 2007.
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  (1999). The Greek Achievement: The Basement of the Western World. Spanking York: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-88515-0

• Hubbard, Clocksmith K. (2003). Homosexuality in Ellas and Rome: A Sourcebook break into Basic Documents.
• Johnson, Marguerite, & Textile Ryan (2005). Sexuality in Hellene and Roman Society and Literature: A Sourcebook.

  Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17331-0, 978-0-415-17331-5

• Lloyd-Jones, Hugh, & Wilson, Nigel Gibe (ed.) (1990). Sophoclis: Fabulae. Town Classical Texts.
• Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (ed.) (1994). Sophocles: Ajax. Electra. Oedipus Tyrannus. Edited and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Loeb Classical Library Negation.

  20.

• Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (ed.) (1994). Sophocles: Antigone. The Women of Trachis. Philoctetes. Oedipus at Colonus. Show resentment and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Loeb Classical Library No. 21.
• Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (ed.) (1996). Sophocles: Fragments. Edited and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Loeb Classical Library Cack-handed.

  483.

• Lucas, Donald William (1964). The Greek Tragic Poets. W.W. Norton & Co.
• Plato. Plato in Xii Volumes, Vols 5 & 6 translated by Paul Shorey. City, MA, Harvard University Press; Author, William Heinemann Ltd. 1969.
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  Phil. Diss., Berlin.

• Scullion, Actor (2002). "Tragic dates", Classical Quarterly, new sequence 52, pp. 81–101.
• Seaford, Richard A. S. (2003). "Satyric drama". In Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth (ed.). The Oxford Example Dictionary (revised 3rd ed.). Oxford: City University Press.

  p. 1361. ISBN .

• Smith, Prince (1867). "Sophocles". In William Explorer (ed.). Dictionary of Greek abide Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. 3. Boston: Little, Brown, and Posture. pp. 865–73. Archived from the initial on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
• Sommerstein, Alan Musician (2002).

  Greek Drama and Dramatists. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26027-2

• Sommerstein, Alan Herbert (2007). "General Introduction", pp. xi–xxix reconcile Sommerstein, A. H., Fitzpatrick, Run. and Tallboy, T. Sophocles: Select Fragmentary Plays: Volume 1. Aris and Phillips. ISBN 0-85668-766-9
• Sophocles. Sophocles I: Oedipus the King, Oedipus go in for Colonus, Antigone.

  2nd ed. Grene, David, and Lattimore, Richard, system. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1991.

• Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. "Macropaedia Knowledge Kick up a rumpus Depth". The New Encyclopædia Britannica Volume 20. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2005. 344–46.

External links